Cybersecurity Glossary: Over 100 Terms on Cyber Attacks, Digital Forensics, & Data Recovery

In the high-stakes worlds of cybersecurity and data recovery, clarity is critical. When a server fails, a network is breached, or evidence needs to be preserved, technical jargon shouldn’t stand in the way of a solution. At Proven Data, we believe that understanding the problem is the first step toward solving it.

This glossary serves as your comprehensive guide to the essential terminology of Digital Forensics, Incident Response (DFIR), and Data Recovery. We have compiled and simplified the complex language used by industry experts, government agencies (NIST, CISA), and our own engineers.

Whether you are an IT professional managing a crisis, a legal expert navigating eDiscovery, or a business leader looking to bolster your cyber resilience, this guide is designed to help you make informed decisions when it matters most.

1. Cyber threats, attacks, and malware

The following terms describe the adversaries, tools, and techniques used to compromise systems.

Account takeover (ATO)

A form of identity theft where a threat actor gains unauthorized access to a victim’s online accounts (such as banking, email, or e-commerce) by intercepting or stealing login credentials. This is often the result of successful phishing campaigns or credential stuffing attacks.

Advanced persistent threat (APT)

A prolonged, targeted cyberattack in which a sophisticated adversary, often state-sponsored or part of a criminal syndicate, gains access to a network and remains undetected for an extended period. Unlike “smash and grab” attacks, an APT focuses on long-term espionage, data theft, or monitoring of high-value targets.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the use of algorithms to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, like learning, problem-solving, decision-making, and understanding language.

In cybersecurity, AI can be used to automate threat detection and response. While defenders use AI to identify anomalies faster, attackers also leverage AI in cybersecurity to write more sophisticated malware and automate attacks.

Atomic macOS stealer (AMOS)

A specific and sophisticated piece of malware targeting macOS environments. It is designed to steal sensitive information such as iCloud Keychain passwords, credit card numbers, and crypto wallet files. Read our analysis on what Atomic Stealer (AMOS) is to understand how it impacts Mac users.

Backdoor

A hidden method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer system. Backdoors can be embedded by a developer during software creation or installed later by malware, allowing attackers to regain persistent remote access to a system even after credentials have been changed.

Botnet

A network of private computers that have been infected with malicious software and are controlled as a group without the owners’ knowledge. Attackers use these “zombie” machines to launch massive coordinated attacks. To understand the scale of these threats, learn how a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack happens.

Brute force attack

A cryptanalytic attack method that attempts to decode encrypted data or crack passwords by systematically trying every possible combination of characters until the correct one is found. While simple, it can be effective against weak passwords that do not adhere to complexity requirements.

Business email compromise (BEC)

A specific type of phishing attack targeting companies that conduct wire transfers. Attackers compromise legitimate business email accounts or use spoofing techniques to authorize fraudulent payments, often impersonating C-level executives or trusted vendors.

Command and control (C2)

A server or infrastructure controlled by an attacker to facilitate communication with systems they have compromised. Malware on infected machines “calls home” to the C2 server to receive new instructions, download additional payloads, or exfiltrate stolen data.

Credential stuffing

An automated attack in which stolen username/password pairs from one data breach are tested against multiple other websites. This technique exploits the common user habit of reusing the same password across different services.

Cross-site scripting (XSS)

A vulnerability in web applications that allows attackers to inject malicious client-side scripts into web pages viewed by other users. By bypassing access controls, XSS attacks can be used to steal session cookies, passwords, and other sensitive user data.

Cybersecurity

The practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks. These cyberattacks are usually aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying sensitive information. 

For a deeper dive, read our article: What is Cybersecurity?

Denial of service (DoS / DDoS)

An attack calculated to shut down a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its intended users. A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) escalates this by using a botnet to flood the target from multiple sources simultaneously, making it nearly impossible to stop by blocking a single IP address.

Drive-by download

The unintended download of malicious software from the internet. This occurs when a user visits a compromised website that exploits browser vulnerabilities to download and install malware in the background without the user’s knowledge or consent.

Exploit

Code or a technique that takes advantage of a specific vulnerability (a bug or glitch) in software or hardware. Attackers use exploits to trigger unintended behavior, such as causing a crash or gaining unauthorized administrative access to a system.

Insider threat

A security risk originating from within the targeted organization, such as a current or former employee, contractor, or business associate who has inside information or access rights. These threats are difficult to detect because the actor already has legitimate access. 

Read our comprehensive guide to learn how to protect your business from insider threats.

Keylogger

Surveillance software or hardware designed to record every keystroke made by a computer user. Threat actors use keyloggers to surreptitiously capture passwords, credit card numbers, and confidential communications before they are encrypted by the system.

Logic bomb

A piece of code intentionally inserted into a software system that remains dormant until specific conditions are met (such as a specific date or the termination of an employee). When triggered, it executes a malicious function, such as deleting critical databases or corrupting files.

Malvertising

A portmanteau of “malicious advertising,” this technique involves injecting malicious code into legitimate online advertising networks. Users can be infected simply by viewing an ad on a trusted website, without clicking on anything. 

Learn more in our article: What is Malvertising?

Malware

An umbrella term for “Malicious Software,” encompassing viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, spyware, and adware. Any software designed to cause damage or unauthorized actions falls under this category. 

Read our guide to understand the difference between malware and ransomware and the implications of the attack on your business.

Man-in-the-Middle (MitM)

An attack where the adversary secretly relays and possibly alters the communication between two parties who believe they are communicating directly with each other. This is common on unsecured Wi-Fi networks where attackers intercept data in transit.

Phishing

A social engineering attack that attempts to steal user data, including login credentials and credit card numbers, by masquerading as a trusted entity. Phishing attacks are typically delivered via email or text message and often convey a sense of urgency.

Ransomware

A type of malware that encrypts a victim’s files and demands payment to restore access. Modern variants often employ “Double Extortion,” threatening to publish stolen data if the ransom is not paid. 

If you have been hit, professional Ransomware Recovery services can often assist in decrypting data or negotiating complex settlements. For prevention, it is vital to know how to identify ransomware before it executes and understand current ransomware trends.

Rootkit

A collection of tools that enable administrator-level access to a computer or network while actively hiding their presence. Rootkits are designed to mask the existence of compromised processes or malware from standard detection methods like antivirus software.

Side-channel attack 

A subtle attack method that extracts sensitive information (like cryptographic keys) by measuring the physical implementation of a computer system rather than exploiting software bugs. Attackers analyze “leakage” such as power consumption, electromagnetic emissions, or sound to reconstruct data.

Smart contract vulnerability 

Security flaws were found in the self-executing code used on blockchain platforms (like Ethereum). Because smart contracts handle financial transactions automatically, vulnerabilities here can lead to the irreversible theft of cryptocurrency.

Social engineering

The psychological manipulation of people into performing actions or divulging confidential information. Rather than hacking the software, social engineering hacks the human user, often serving as the entry point for a larger cyberattack.

Spear phishing

A highly targeted phishing attempt directed at a specific individual or organization. Unlike bulk phishing, spear phishing uses personalized information gathered from open sources (like social media platforms) to make the fraudulent message appear highly legitimate.

Spoofing

The act of falsifying data to disguise oneself as a trusted entity. Common types include IP spoofing (hiding the source of a connection), email spoofing (faking the sender address), and caller ID spoofing.

Spyware

Malware installed on a computer without the user’s knowledge to collect information about their web browsing habits, passwords, or personal data. This data is then sent to a third party for advertising or theft purposes. 

For mobile users, learn how to remove stalkerware from Android devices.

SQL injection (SQLi)

A code injection technique used to attack data-driven applications. It allows an attacker to interfere with the queries an application makes to its database, potentially allowing them to view, modify, or delete data that they are not normally able to access.

Trojan horse

A type of malware that disguises itself as a legitimate file or program to trick users into downloading and installing it. Once inside, it creates a backdoor for attackers to access the system.

Virus

A type of malicious code written to alter the way a computer operates and designed to spread from one computer to another. Unlike a worm, a virus requires a host program and user action (like opening a file) to replicate.

VPN (Virtual Private Network)

A tool that creates a secure connection over a public network. While it encrypts traffic and hides your IP address, it is important to understand its limitations. 

Read our blog to answer the question: Does a VPN protect from viruses?

Worm

A standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program and does not require user intervention to propagate across a network.

Zero-day exploit

An attack that targets a potentially serious software security hole (vulnerability) that the vendor is currently unaware of or has not yet patched. It is called “zero-day” because the developers have had zero days to fix the flaw before it was exploited.

2. Digital forensics and investigation 

The following terms are used in the scientific recovery and analysis of evidence found on digital devices.

Allocation units

The smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file. Even if a file is smaller than the allocation unit, it takes up the entire unit. Forensics experts analyze the empty space within these units (slack space) for hidden data.

Anti-forensics

Tools and techniques used by attackers to frustrate forensic analysis and hide their tracks. Common methods include Timestomping, wiping data, or using heavy encryption to make evidence inaccessible.

Bit-stream image (forensic image)

A clone of a storage medium that copies every single bit of data, including the file data, Unallocated Space, and Slack Space. This ensures a true, mathematically identical replica is created for analysis, preserving the original evidence’s integrity.

Chain of custody

The chronological documentation or paper trail showing the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of physical or electronic evidence. Maintaining a strict chain of custody is essential for evidence to be admissible in court.

Cloud forensics

The application of digital forensics in cloud computing environments. This discipline addresses unique challenges such as multi-tenancy (multiple users on one server) and data residing across multiple physical locations under different jurisdictions.

Clusters

A cluster is the smallest logical unit of disk space that an operating system allocates to store a file, consisting of a fixed number of contiguous sectors. In digital forensics, analyzing clusters is crucial because the unused portion of a partially filled cluster, known as slack space, often retains recoverable fragments of previously deleted data or hidden evidence.

Computer forensics

The practice of collecting, analyzing, and reporting on digital data in a way that is legally admissible. It focuses on artifacts found on traditional computing devices. 

Computer Forensics services are vital for uncovering employee misconduct, IP theft, and fraud.

Data carving

The process of extracting data (files) from a storage device based on file content (headers and footers) rather than the file system table. This technique is essential when the file system is corrupted or when recovering deleted files from unallocated space.

Dead box analysis

Forensic analysis performed on a powered-off system or on a forensic image of a drive. This is the traditional method of forensics, ensuring that the state of the data is not altered by the operating system during the examination.

Digital evidence

Information of probative value that is stored or transmitted in binary form. This includes emails, documents, images, history logs, and metadata that can serve as proof in a legal investigation.

eDiscovery (Electronic Discovery)

The process by which electronic data is sought, located, secured, searched, and produced as Electronically Stored Information (ESI) for use as evidence in legal cases. 

Our eDiscovery services help legal teams and the legal litigation industry navigate the complex volume of digital data.

File signature (Magic Number)

Unique binary data at the very beginning of a file that identifies the file format (e.g., FF D8 for JPEG). Forensics tools use these signatures during Data Carving to identify and recover files even if their extensions have been deleted or changed.

File slack (or drive slack)

File slack is the unused space extending from the end of the last occupied sector to the end of the assigned cluster. This area is critical in forensics because it does not get overwritten by the current file, meaning it preserves fragments of whatever deleted data previously occupied that specific cluster.

Hashing (MD5 / SHA-256)

A mathematical algorithm that generates a unique alphanumeric string (hash) from a data set. It is used to verify the integrity of evidence. If a single bit in a file changes, the resulting hash changes completely, proving tampering occurred.

Hex editor

A software tool that allows a forensic analyst to view and edit the raw binary data of a file or disk. Analysts use hex editors to inspect file headers, investigate corruption, or manually recover fragmented data.

Inode

A data structure in Unix/Linux file systems (like EXT4 or APFS) that stores information about a file (metadata) except its name and actual data. 

In forensic investigations on Linux servers, analyzing inodes provides critical timeline data.

Intellectual property (IP) investigation

A specialized forensic process focused on determining if proprietary data, trade secrets, or copyrighted material has been stolen or misused. Intellectual Property investigations often involve analyzing transfer logs and external device connections.

Live analysis

Forensic analysis performed on a running system. This is often necessary to capture volatile data that vanishes when power is cut, such as the contents of RAM, running processes, and active network connections.

Metadata

“Data about data.” Includes information such as the author, date created, date modified, and file size. Metadata forensics can reveal if a file was backdated or tampered with, even if the content appears normal.

Mobile forensics

The recovery of digital evidence from mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Mobile forensics involves specialized challenges due to proprietary operating systems, continuously changing hardware, and strong encryption standards.

RAM forensics

The analysis of a computer’s Random Access Memory (RAM) to recover volatile data. Because RAM is wiped when a computer shuts down, capturing it quickly can yield encryption keys, chat logs, and evidence of running malware that is not present on the hard drive.

RAM slack

RAM slack is the specific gap between the end of the actual file and the end of the sector it resides in. Historically, operating systems filled this space with random data dumped from the system’s live memory, potentially exposing sensitive information like passwords, though modern systems typically pad it with zeros to secure it.

Registry forensics

The analysis of the Windows Registry to find evidence of user activity. The registry contains a goldmine of artifacts, including software installation dates, lists of connected USB devices, and recent system configuration changes.

Slack space

Slack space is the residual storage area that remains at the end of a cluster when the file saved within it does not completely fill the allocated space. Digital forensics experts target this area because it often contains latent data (fragments of deleted files or system memory) that exist in the gap between the current file’s end and the cluster’s physical limit.

Steganography

The practice of concealing messages or information within other non-secret text or data. For example, a bad actor might hide a text file containing stolen passwords inside a harmless-looking JPEG image to bypass security filters.

Timestomping

A technique used by attackers to modify the timestamps (creation, access, modification) of files. This is done to hide their tracks and confuse forensic timelines, making malicious files appear to be part of the original system installation.

Triage

The process of quickly prioritizing which systems or devices are most likely to contain relevant evidence. In large-scale breaches, triage helps investigators focus their resources effectively on the most critical assets first.

Unallocated space

The area on a hard drive where files have been deleted or were never written. While the file system sees this space as “free” and available for new data, it often contains fully recoverable deleted files that have not yet been overwritten.

Video forensics

The scientific examination, comparison, and evaluation of video in legal matters. Video forensics services are used to enhance low-quality CCTV footage, authenticate video recordings, and clarify events for court presentation.

Write blocker

A hardware or software tool used in forensics to prevent any writing or modification to a drive during the acquisition process. Using a write blocker is mandatory to ensure the evidence remains unaltered and admissible in court.

3. Incident response & security operations 

Terms related to the defensive posture, monitoring, and immediate reaction to security events.

Air gap

A security measure where a computer or network is physically isolated from unsecured networks, such as the internet. Air gapping is used for highly sensitive systems (like industrial controls) to prevent hacking, though physical access can still compromise them.

Alert

A notification generated by a security monitoring tool (like an IDS or SIEM) indicating a potential security issue or policy violation. Security teams must analyze alerts to determine if they represent a true positive (actual threat) or a false positive.

Blue team

The group of individuals within an organization who identify security flaws and defend information systems against attacks. They are the defensive counterpart to the offensive Red Team.

Computer security incident response team (CSIRT)

A concrete organizational entity (i.e., one or more staff members) is assigned the responsibility for coordinating and supporting the response to a computer security event or incident.

Containment

The specific phase of incident response focuses on limiting the scope and magnitude of a security incident. The goal is to prevent the damage from spreading (e.g., isolating an infected server) while keeping the business operational.

Cryptography 

The practice of securing communication and data against unauthorized access through mathematical techniques. It involves encryption (scrambling data so it is unreadable) and decryption (restoring it).

Cyber resilience

The ability to anticipate, withstand, recover from, and adapt to adverse conditions, stresses, attacks, or compromises on systems that include cyber resources. Resilience goes beyond prevention, assuming that breaches will occur and planning for survival.

Cyber threat level

A measure of the probability and potential impact of a cyber attack at a given time. Understanding the current cyber threat level helps organizations adjust their defensive posture and resource allocation. Cybersecurity trends often dictate how these levels change over time.

Endpoint detection and response (EDR)

Integrated security tools that monitor end-user devices (computers, phones) to detect and prevent cyber threats. EDR moves beyond simple antivirus by analyzing behavior and providing remote remediation capabilities.

Eradication

The Incident Response phase, where the root cause of the incident is identified and removed from the network. This includes activities such as deleting malware, disabling breached accounts, and patching vulnerabilities. 

See our top 6 ransomware incident response actions for practical examples.

Firewall

A network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an organization’s previously established security policies. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted outside networks.

Honeypot

A decoy system or network set up to attract potential attackers. It allows security teams to monitor attacker behavior, understand their techniques, and distract them from legitimate high-value targets.

Incident response plan (IRP)

A set of written instructions and procedures that an organization follows to detect, respond to, and recover from network security incidents. 

To ensure readiness, many companies invest in an Incident Response Retainer.

Intrusion detection system (IDS)

A device or software application that monitors a network or system for malicious activity or policy violations. An IDS purely observes and alerts, unlike an IPS which can take action.

Intrusion prevention system (IPS)

A network security/threat prevention technology that examines network traffic flows to detect and prevent vulnerability exploits. It is an evolution of IDS that can actively block detected threats in real-time.

Machine learning

Machine learning is a subset of AI that enables systems to learn from data and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. 

Read about the role of machine learning in cybersecurity to see how it predicts new attack vectors based on historical data.

Multi-factor authentication (MFA / 2FA)

A security system that requires more than one method of authentication from independent categories of credentials to verify the user’s identity. This usually combines something you know (password), something you possess (smartphone/token), or something you are (biometric).

Network security

The policies and practices adopted to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and network-accessible resources. 

Learn more in our blog: What is network security?

Packet sniffer 

A software or hardware tool (such as Wireshark) used to monitor and log traffic passing over a digital network. While security teams use sniffers to troubleshoot network issues and detect intrusion attempts, attackers use them to capture unencrypted data like passwords.

Patch management

The process of distributing and applying updates to software to correct errors (bugs) or vulnerabilities. Effective system patching is one of the most critical steps in reducing an organization’s attack surface.

Penetration testing (Pen Test)

A simulated cyberattack against your computer system to check for exploitable vulnerabilities. Pen tests are performed by ethical hackers to find security holes before criminals do.

Public key infrastructure (PKI) 

The framework of encryption keys and digital certificates secures Internet communications. PKI governs the issuance of digital certificates, which validate the identity of parties (like websites) and enable secure data exchange (HTTPS).

Quantum computing 

Quantum computing is an emerging field of computing that utilizes quantum mechanics. While it promises massive processing power, it also poses a threat to current encryption standards. 

Read our insights on quantum computing and cybersecurity to prepare for the future.

Red team

A group of ethical hackers is authorized to simulate a real-world, multi-vector attack on an organization to test its defenses. They act as the adversary to train the defensive Blue Team.

Remediation

The process of fixing security holes and restoring systems to a safe state after an incident. This serves as the bridge between incident response and returning to “business as usual.”

Risk assessment

The process of identifying, estimating, and prioritizing information security risks to organizational operations, assets, and individuals. It involves determining what assets are most critical and what threats they face.

Reverse engineering

The process of deconstructing software to reveal its architecture, functionality, and underlying code. In cybersecurity, this is a critical skill for malware analysis, allowing defenders to understand how a virus works, what it targets, and how to neutralize it.

Sandbox 

An isolated environment on a network that mimics end-user operating systems. Security professionals use sandboxes to safely execute and analyze suspicious files or code (malware) without risking the integrity of the host device or the larger network.

Security operations center (SOC)

A centralized facility where information security issues are monitored, assessed, and defended on an ongoing basis. The SOC acts as the command post for an organization’s cybersecurity personnel.

SIEM (Security Information and Event Management)

Software that aggregates and analyzes activity logs from many different resources across an entire IT infrastructure. SIEM provides real-time analysis of security alerts generated by applications and network hardware.

Threat hunting

The proactive searching for cyber threats that are lurking undetected in a network. Unlike automated detection, threat hunting is a human-led hypothesis-driven approach to finding bad actors who have bypassed defenses.

Vulnerability management

The cyclical practice of identifying, classifying, remediating, and mitigating vulnerabilities in software and firmware. It is a continuous process of maintaining system health.

Wi-Fi security protocols (WPA2 / WPA3) 

Security standards designed to protect wireless computer networks. These protocols encrypt data transmitted over the air to prevent eavesdropping (sniffing) and unauthorized access. “War driving” or Wi-Fi analysis projects often focus on testing the strength of these protocols.

4. Data recovery and storage hardware 

Terms defining the physical and logical machinery of data storage.

Actuator arm

The mechanical arm inside a hard drive that moves the Read/Write Heads across the Platters. It functions similarly to the arm on a record player, positioning the heads over the correct data track.

Terms defining the physical and logical machinery of data storage.

Bad sector

A permanently damaged area on a storage drive that cannot hold data. “Logical” bad sectors are software errors that can often be fixed; “Physical” bad sectors indicate physical damage to the medium and usually require professional recovery.

Cleanroom (ISO Class 5)

A controlled environment with extremely low levels of pollutants such as dust, airborne microbes, and aerosol particles. Professional data recovery services use cleanrooms to open hard drives because a single speck of dust can cause a catastrophic head crash.

Controller (SSD/HDD)

The embedded processor that manages the flow of data between the computer and the storage memory (NAND or Platters). It handles essential functions like error correction and Wear Leveling.

Cylinder-head-sector (CHS)

An early method for giving addresses to data on a hard drive. While modern drives use LBA (Logical Block Addressing), CHS geometry is still relevant when dealing with legacy hardware recovery.

Firmware

Permanent software programmed into a read-only memory of the hard drive or SSD. It controls the hardware’s low-level functions. Firmware corruption is a common cause of drive failure that requires specialized equipment to repair.

Head crash

A catastrophic failure where the read/write head of a hard drive touches the rotating platter. This often scratches the magnetic surface, stripping away the data stored there.

Hot swap

The ability to replace a computer system component (like a drive in a RAID array) without shutting down the system. This is critical for servers that require 100% uptime.

HPA (host-protected area)

A hidden area of a hard drive that is not normally visible to the operating system. It is often used by manufacturers for recovery data, but can also be manipulated by sophisticated malware to hide a payload or evidence.

Interface

The standard by which the drive connects to the computer. Common interfaces include SATA (consumer drives), NVMe (high-speed SSDs), SAS (enterprise servers), USB, and Thunderbolt.

Landing zone

A specific area on the hard drive platter where the heads park when the drive is powered down. This zone is textured to prevent the smooth heads from sticking to the smooth platters (stiction) and protects the data area from damage during spin-down.

LBA (logical block addressing)

A common scheme used for specifying the location of blocks of data stored on computer storage devices. LBA replaces the older CHS method, allowing the OS to address the drive as a linear stream of blocks.

NAND flash

The type of non-volatile storage technology used in SSDs, USB drives, and memory cards. Unlike RAM, NAND flash does not require power to retain data, making it ideal for portable storage.

NVMe (non-volatile memory express)

A high-performance interface protocol for accessing data on SSDs directly via the PCIe bus. NVMe is significantly faster than the older SATA interface, designed specifically for the speed of flash memory.

PCB (printed circuit board)

The green or blue board attached to the bottom of a hard drive or inside an SSD. It holds the Controller, motor drivers, and interface connectors. PCB failure is a common reason for a drive appearing “dead” or unresponsive.

Platter

The circular magnetic disk inside a hard drive where data is stored. Platters are made of glass or aluminum and coated with a thin magnetic layer; they spin at high speeds (typically 5400 or 7200 RPM).

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

A technology that combines multiple disk drive components into a logical unit to improve performance, data redundancy, or both.

• RAID 0: Striping (High speed, no redundancy—if one drive fails, all data is lost).
• RAID 1: Mirroring (High redundancy—data is copied identically to two drives).
• RAID 5: Striping with Parity (A balance of speed and redundancy, allowing for one drive failure).

S.M.A.R.T.

“Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology.” A monitoring system included in HDDs and SSDs that detects and reports on various indicators of drive reliability, intending to anticipate imminent hardware failures.

S.M.A.R.T.

“Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology.” A monitoring system included in HDDs and SSDs that detects and reports on various indicators of drive reliability, intending to anticipate imminent hardware failures.

SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)

A high-speed data transfer protocol used primarily in enterprise and server storage. SAS drives are designed for high reliability and 24/7 operation.“Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology.” A monitoring system included in HDDs and SSDs that detects and reports on various indicators of drive reliability, intending to anticipate imminent hardware failures.

Service Area (SA) / System Area

A portion of the hard drive platters reserved for the drive’s own firmware modules. It is inaccessible to the user (and the OS) but is critical for the drive to function. If the SA is corrupted, the drive becomes inaccessible.

Spindle motor

The motor that spins the hard drive platters. If this motor fails (seized motor), the drive will not spin up, and data cannot be read without swapping the platter stack into a donor drive.

SSD (solid state drive)

A storage device containing non-volatile flash memory, used in place of a hard disk because of its much greater speed. Because they have no moving parts, SSDs are more durable against physical drops but have a limited number of write cycles.

TRIM

A command that allows an operating system to inform a solid-state drive (SSD) which blocks of data are no longer considered in use and can be wiped internally. While good for performance, TRIM makes data recovery much more difficult after deletion.

Wear leveling

A technique used in SSDs to prolong the life of the memory. The controller distributes write cycles evenly across all memory blocks so that no single block wears out prematurely.

5. File systems and logical structures 

Terms related to how the Operating System organizes data.

APFS (Apple file system)

The default file system for macOS, iOS, and iPadOS. APFS is optimized for Flash/SSD storage and features strong native encryption and “Space Sharing,” allowing multiple volumes to share the same free space.

BitLocker

A full-volume encryption feature included with Microsoft Windows. It is designed to protect data by providing encryption for entire volumes, rendering the data unreadable if the drive is stolen or removed from the computer.

Boot sector / MBR (master boot record)

The first sector of a data storage device that contains code to bootstrap the system (load the OS). Corruption here prevents the computer from starting up, even if the data files are intact.

Cluster

A group of Sectors. The file system allocates storage in clusters. If a file is 1KB and the cluster size is 4KB, the file will occupy the full 4KB, creating 3KB of Slack Space.

ExFAT

A file system optimized for flash memory (SD cards, USB drives). It allows for large file sizes (breaking the 4GB limit of FAT32) and offers excellent compatibility between Windows and Mac systems.

EXT4

The most common file system for Linux operating systems. It supports huge individual file sizes and volumes and is known for its stability and reduced fragmentation.

A file system optimized for flash memory (SD cards, USB drives). It allows for large file sizes (breaking the 4GB limit of FAT32) and offers excellent compatibility between Windows and Mac systems.

File system

The method and data structure that an operating system uses to control how data is stored and retrieved. Without a file system (like NTFS, FAT32, or HFS+), data placed in a storage medium would be one large body of data with no way to tell where one piece of information stops and the next begins.

Full disk encryption (FDE) 

A security method that encrypts every bit of data on a hard drive or storage device. Unlike file-level encryption, FDE protects the entire operating system. Access to the data requires a specific key or password at boot time (e.g., BitLocker for Windows or FileVault for macOS).

GPT (GUID Partition Table)

A standard for the layout of partition tables of a physical computer storage device. GPT replaces the older MBR standard in modern systems (UEFI), allowing for much larger hard drives and more partitions.

HFS+ (Mac OS Extended)

The primary file system for macOS prior to the introduction of APFS. While largely replaced, it is still used on older Mac drives and Time Machine backups.

Journaling

A file system feature that keeps a log (journal) of changes that have not yet been committed to the main file system. This helps prevent corruption in the event of a crash or power loss by allowing the system to replay the journal and correct errors.

NTFS (New Technology File System)

The proprietary file system developed by Microsoft, and the default for Windows. It supports large files, access control lists (ACLs) for security, and file compression.

Partition

A logical division of a hard disk that is treated as a separate unit by the operating system. A single physical drive can be divided into multiple partitions (e.g., C: drive for Windows, D: drive for Data).

ReFS (resilient file system)

A Microsoft proprietary file system intended to be a successor to NTFS. Designed primarily for servers, it focuses on maximizing data availability and integrity, with built-in protection against bit rot.

Sector

The smallest physical storage unit on the disk. The standard size was historically 512 bytes, but modern Advanced Format drives use 4096 bytes (4K) to improve data integrity and capacity.

Volume

A single accessible storage area with a single file system, typically resident on a single partition of a hard disk.

6. Compliance, legal, and standards 

Terms regarding the laws and frameworks governing data handling.

Access control

The process of granting or denying specific requests to obtain and use information or enter physical facilities. It ensures that users are who they say they are and that they have the appropriate authority to access the data.

Availability

Ensuring that authorized users have access to information and associated assets when required. As part of the CIA Triad, availability ensures that systems are up and running (countering DoS attacks or hardware failure).

CIA triad

The three foundational pillars of information security:

1. Confidentiality: Only authorized people can see the data.
2. Integrity: The data has not been improperly changed.
3. Availability: The data is accessible when needed.

Confidentiality

Preserving authorized restrictions on information access and disclosure. This includes protecting personal privacy and proprietary information from unauthorized viewing (countering espionage or data leaks).

Cyber insurance

A specialty insurance product intended to protect businesses from Internet-based risks, and more generally from risks relating to information technology infrastructure. 

Understanding the cyber insurance claim process is vital for rapid recovery after an incident.

Data breach

The unauthorized movement or disclosure of sensitive information to a party, usually outside the organization, that is not authorized to have or see the information. Breaches can result from external hacking, insider threats, or simple negligence.

Data integrity

The property that data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner. Data integrity covers the entire lifecycle of data, ensuring consistency and accuracy from creation to archival.

Due diligence

The care that a reasonable person exercises to avoid harm to other persons or their property. In cybersecurity, it refers to the research and analysis done before a security decision (e.g., vetting a third-party vendor’s security practices).

Due diligence

The care that a reasonable person exercises to avoid harm to other persons or their property. In cybersecurity, it refers to the research and analysis done before a security decision (e.g., vetting a third-party vendor’s security practices).

GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)

A regulation in EU law on data protection and privacy. It impacts any global company handling EU citizens’ data, requiring strict data erasure protocols and mandatory breach notifications within 72 hours.

HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)

U.S. legislation that provides data privacy and security provisions for safeguarding medical information (PHI). Proven Data adheres to strict HIPAA standards during Healthcare Data Recovery to ensure patient confidentiality is never compromised.

ISO/IEC 27001

An international standard on how to manage information security. It details requirements for establishing, implementing, maintaining, and continually improving an Information Security Management System (ISMS).

NIST cybersecurity framework

A set of guidelines and best practices developed by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology. It helps private sector organizations and government agencies manage and improve their cybersecurity posture through five functions: Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, and Recover.

Non-repudiation

Assurance that the sender of information is provided with proof of delivery and the recipient is provided with proof of the sender’s identity, so neither can later deny processing the data. Digital signatures are a common method of ensuring non-repudiation.

PCI-DSS

“Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard.” An information security standard for organizations that handle branded credit cards from the major card schemes. Compliance is mandatory for any business that accepts card payments.

PII (personally identifiable information)

Information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual’s identity, such as name, social security number, or biometric records. Protecting PII is a primary goal during data recovery and forensic investigations to prevent identity theft.

PHI (protected health information)

Any information about health status, provision of health care, or payment for health care that can be linked to a specific individual. This is the specific data class protected by HIPAA.

SOC 2 (service organization control 2)

An auditing procedure that ensures your service providers securely manage your data to protect the interests of your organization and the privacy of its clients. SOC 2 reports focus on non-financial reporting controls as they relate to security, availability, processing integrity, confidentiality, and privacy.